Peru
Peru (Spanish: Perú, Quechua: Piruw, Aymara: Piruw), officially the Republic of Peru (Spanish: República del Perú (help·info), IPA: [re'pu.ßli.ka del pe'ru]), is a country in western South America. It is bordered on the north by Ecuador and Colombia, on the east by Brazil, on the southeast by Bolivia, on the south by Chile, and on the west by the Pacific Ocean.
Peruvian territory was home to the Norte Chico civilization, one of the oldest in the world, and to the Inca Empire, the largest state in Pre-Columbian America. It was conquered by the Spanish Empire in the 16th-century, who established a Viceroyalty with jurisdiction over most of its South American domains. Independence was declared on 1821 but consolidated only after the Battle of Ayacucho, three years later.
Peru is a presidential representative democratic republic divided into 25 regions. It is a developing country with a moderate Human Development Index score and a level of poverty of around 50%. Main economic activities include agriculture, fishing, mining and manufacturing of products such as textiles. Peru is home to many indigenous ethnic groups, especially in its portion of the Amazon rainforest.
Contents
- History of Peru
- Government of Peru
- Geography of Peru
- Economy of Peru
- Demographics of Peru
- Culture of Peru
History of Peru
Andean Peru is recognized as one of only six areas of indigenous development of civilization in the world and one of only two in the Western Hemisphere, along with Mesoamerica. The earliest such developments are associated with the Caral archaeological site, dated to around 3,200 years BC. They were followed by cultures such as Chavin, Paracas, Mochica, Nazca, Wari and Chimu. In the 15th-century, the Incas emerged as a powerful state, which formed the largest empire in Pre-Columbian America in the span of a century. Andean societies were based on agriculture, developed through the use of irrigation and terracing among other techniques. Husbandry of camelids and fishing were also important economic activities. Social organization relied on reciprocity and redistribution, as there was no notion of market or money.
In 1532, a group of conquistadors led by Francisco Pizarro defeated Inca Emperor Atahualpa and imposed Spanish domination. In 1542 the Spanish Crown established the Viceroyalty of Peru with jurisdiction over most of its dependencies in South America. The country was reorganized in the 1570s under the leadership of Viceroy Francisco de Toledo with silver mining as the basic economic activity and Indian forced labor as the primary workforce. Bullion produced this way provided considerable revenues for the Spanish Crown and fueled a complex trade network controlled by merchants from Lima which extended to Europe and other parts of the world.
By the 18th-century, Royal income from silver production had diminished considerably due to widespread smuggling and tax evasion. In reaction to such developments, common throughout the Americas, and to the growing concern over the vulnerability of its colonies, the Crown enacted a series of edicts collectively known as the Bourbon Reforms. Taxes were increased and the viceroyalty was partitioned in order to create the viceroyalties of Nueva Granada and Río de la Plata. The new laws alienated various social groups and provoked revolts including the rebellion of Túpac Amaru II in 1780, but all of them were defeated. In the early 19th-century, while most of South America was swept by wars of independence Peru remained a royalist stronghold. The elite hesitated between emancipation and loyalty to the Spanish Monarch thus, independence was only achieved after the military campaigns of José de San Martín and Simón Bolívar.
The early years of the Republic were marked by endemic struggles between military caudillos. They were also a period of national identity definition as Bolivarian projects for a Latin American Confederation foundered and a union with Bolivia proved ephemeral. During the mid-19th century, Peru enjoyed several years of stability under the leadership of Ramón Castilla thanks to a fiscal bonanza sustained on guano exports. However, by the 1870s, these resources had been dilapidated, the country was heavily indebted and political infighting was again on the rise. Under these conditions, Perú was defeated by Chile in the War of the Pacific and lost Arica and Tarapacá. Internal struggles after the war were followed by a period of stability associated to the predominance of the Civilista Party, which lasted until the authoritarian regime of Augusto B. Leguía and the irruption into politics of the middle classes.
The Great Depression caused the downfall of Leguía, followed by renewed political turmoil and the emergence of the American Popular Revolutionary Alliance (APRA). The rivalry between this organization and a coalition of the elite and the military was the main feature of Peruvian politics for the following three decades. In 1968, after the failure of the reformist government of Fernando Belaunde, the Armed Forces staged a coup led by General Juan Velasco Alvarado. The new regime undertook radical reforms aimed at fostering development but, despite its populist rhetoric, failed to gain widespread support. In 1975, Velasco was forcefully replaced as president by General Francisco Morales Bermúdez, who paralyzed reforms and oversaw a return to democratic practices.
During the 1980s, Peru faced a huge external debt, an ever-growing inflation, a surge in drug trafficking and massive political violence derived from the actions of insurgent groups Shining Path and Túpac Amaru Revolutionary Movement. Alberto Fujimori was elected president in 1990, two years later he dissolved Parliament and convened a Democratic Constitutional Congress, which drafted a new Constitution. Under his presidency, the economy started to recover, however, accusations of authoritarianism, corruption and human rights violations forced his resignation after the controversial 2000 elections.
Government of Peru and Politics of Peru
Peru is a presidential representative democratic republic with a pluriform multi-party system. According to the current constitution, the President is the head of state and government, elected for five years with no immediate re-election. He designates the Prime Minister and, with his advice, the rest of the Council of Ministers. There is a unicameral Congress with 120 members, also elected for a five-year period. Both powers, Executive and Legislature, have the power to propose legislation which needs Congress approval and promulgation by the President in order to be enacted. The Judiciary is an independent branch of government according to law, however, political intervention into judicial matters has been common throughout history and is still perceived to be so.
Elections are held by direct universal suffrage, voting is compulsory for citizens age eighteen through seventy. Members of the Armed Forces and the Police are not allowed to vote or be elected. General elections held in 2006 ended in a second round victory for presidential candidate Alan García of the Peruvian Aprista Party against Ollanta Humala of Union for Peru with 52.6% versus 47.4% of the valid votes. Congressional results were 45 seats for Union for Peru, 35 for the Peruvian Aprista Party, 17 for National Unity, 13 for Alliance for the Future, 5 for the Center Front and 2 each for Peru Possible and National Restoration.
Foreign relations have historically been dominated by border conflicts with neighboring countries some of which have only been settled recently. There is still an ongoing dispute with Chile over maritime limits in the Pacific Ocean. Peru is an active member of several regional blocs, the most important of which is the Andean Community of Nations. It is also a participant in a number of international organizations such as the Organization of American States and the United Nations, where it is an elected member of the Security Council for the period 2006-2007.
The Military has as its primary mission safeguarding the independence, sovereignty and territorial integrity of the country against any threat. It is composed of three branches: the Ejército del Perú (Army), the Marina de Guerra del Perú (Navy) and the Fuerza Aérea del Perú (Air Force). Each of these services is subordinated to the Ministry of Defense and ultimately to the President as Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces. Conscription was abolished in 1999 and replaced by a voluntary system, males and females can serve for two years in the military institution of their choosing provided they meet the necessary requirements.
Geography of Peru
The territory of Peru covers 1,285,220 km² (496,193 mi²), which makes it 20th-largest country in the world, comparable to Chad and double the size of the state of Texas. It neighbors Ecuador and Colombia to the north, Brazil to the east, Bolivia to the southeast, Chile to the south, and the Pacific Ocean to the west.
The Andes mountain range runs parallel to the Pacific Ocean, dividing the country in three geographic regions. The costa (coast), to the west, is a narrow plain most of which is arid except for a number of valleys created by seasonal rivers. The sierra (highlands) comprises the Andes themselves, its territory combines massifs, canyons and plateaus. It includes the highest point of the country, Huascarán mountain at 6,768 meters above sea level, as well as the Altiplano plateau. The selva (jungle), to the east, is a wide expanse of flat terrain covered by the Amazon rainforest extending up to the border with Brazil. Nearly 60% of national territory is in this region.
Rivers that run through Peruvian territory are divided into three basins. Those that drain towards the Pacific Ocean are characterized by their short length, steep gradient and intermittent flow. Tributaries of the Amazon River are longer, have a much larger flow and low gradient once they exit the Andes. Finally, rivers that drain in Lake Titicaca are characterized by their short length and large flow. They form part of an endorheic basin, as it has no outlet to the sea. The largest rivers of the country are, in descending order, Ucayali, Marañón, Putumayo, Yavarí, Huallaga, Urubamba, Mantaro and Amazon, all of them part of the Amazon Basin.
Climate is influenced by proximity to the Equator, the presence of the Andes and the cold waters of the Humboldt Current. The combination of this factors make for a wide climate diversity ranging from the dryness of the coast to the extreme cold of mountain peaks to the heavy rainfall of the Amazon Basin. The varied geography and climate of Peru account for its high biodiversity with 21,462 species of plants and animals reported as of 2003, 5,855 of them endemic. For their preservation, the Government has established several protected areas.
Economy of Peru
Peru is a developing country with a moderate per capita income and Human Development Index score. According to official sources, 51.6% of the total population is regarded as poor, including a 19.2% considered extremely poor as of 2004. Historically, the evolution of the Peruvian economy has been tied to exports which provide the hard currency necessary to finance imports and external debt payments. Over the years, trade in products such as copper, cotton, guano, sugar and oil has provided substantial revenues. However, self-sustained growth has proven elusive as has a better distribution of income.
Economic policy has varied widely over the last decades, the government of Juan Velasco Alvarado introduced radical reforms, which included an agrarian reform, the expropriation of foreign companies, the introduction of a planning system and the creation of a large state-owned sector. These measures failed to achieve the objectives set by the regime, mainly the end of economic dependency and income redistribution. Despite these results, most reforms were not reversed until the 1990s when the government of Alberto Fujimori undertook a process of liberalization which put an end to price controls, discarded protectionism, eliminated restrictions on foreign direct investment and privatized most state companies. Reforms have allowed sustained economic growth since 1993 except for a slump after the 1997 Asian financial crisis.
In 2006, GDP grew 7.7%, and it is expected to grow 6.5% in 2007 and 6% for five years after 2008. In April 2006, Peru signed a trade agreement with the United States, the Peru Trade Promotion Agreement, becoming the first country in the Andean Community of Nations (Comunidad Andina de Naciones, CAN) to sign such an agreement. As of June 2006, Peru's Congress had approved the agreement and the pact awaits approval by the US Congress. It has free trade agreements with the Andean Community and with many of the countries in Mercosur, as well as Thailand. Peru is negotiating trade agreements with Chile, Mexico, Singapore and India.
Demographics of Peru
With about 28 million inhabitants, Peru is currently the fourth most populous country in South America. Its demographic growth rate has declined from 2.6% in 1950 to 1.6% by the year 2000 and it is expected to decline further, as a result, Peruvian population is expected to reach around 42 million by the year 2050. As of 2005, 72.6% of the total population lived in urban areas, compared to just 27.4% in rural ones. Major cities include Lima, Arequipa, Trujillo, Chiclayo, Piura, Iquitos, Chimbote, Cusco and Huancayo, all of which reported more than 200,000 inhabitants in the 1993 census.
Peru is a multiethnic nation formed by the combination of different ethnic groups over five centuries. Amerindians inhabited Peruvian territory for several millennia before the Spanish Conquest in the 16th-century. Infectious diseases, famine, war and exploitation brought their number down from an estimated 9 million in the 1520s to around 600,000 in 1620. Spaniards and Africans arrived in large number under colonial rule, these three groups have mixed widely over the years. After independence, there has been a small but steady flow of Europeans, especially English, Italian, French, German and Spanish. Chinese arrived in the 1850s as a replacement for slave workers and have since become a major influence in Peruvian society. Other immigrant groups arrived in the 20th-century, including Arabs and Japanese.
The main language of the Peruvian population is Spanish which, according to the 1993 census, was the mother tongue of 80.3% Peruvians age 5 and older. It coexists with several indigenous languages, the most important of which is Quechua, spoken by 16.5%. Other native languages accounted for 3% and foreign languages for 0.2% at that time. According to the same source, 89% of the population over 12 years old declared themselves as Catholics, 6.7% as Evangelicals, 2.6% as of other denominations, 1.4% as non-religious and 0.2% did not specify any affiliation. The literacy rate was estimated at 88.9% as of 2005 with a lower rate in rural areas (76.1%) than in urban ones (94.8%). Primary and secondary education is compulsory and free in public schools.
Culture of Peru
Peruvian culture is a fusion of the different traditions that have converged in its territory over several centuries. Main imputs have been provided by Amerindian inhabitants as well as Spanish colonizers that arrived after Conquest. Other important influences have been made by various ethnic groups from Africa, Asia and Europe. Artistic traditions span several millennia, starting with the elaborate examples of pottery, textiles, jewelry, and sculpture of Pre-Inca cultures. Drawing upon them, the Incas maintained these crafts and made impressive achievements in architecture, for example, Machu Picchu.
After the Spanish Conquest, Baroque, influenced by native traditions, became the dominant art style. Most artistic creations were devoted towards religious subjects as can be seen in the paintings of the Escuela Cusqueña and in the numerous churches built during this time. Colonial traditions were replaced after Independence by modern European styles such as Neoclassicism until the emergence of Indigenismo in the early 20th century. In more recent times, Peruvian art has been characterised by its eclecticism with foreign art currents intermingling with local developments.
Peruvian literature can be traced back to the oral traditions of Pre-Columbian civilizations; writing was introduced with the arrival of Spaniards in the 16th century. Colonial forms of literary expression included chronicles and religious literature. After independence it developed along the lines of European currents such as Neoclassicism and Romanticism. By the early 20th century new developments had arisen as part of the Indigenismo movement. During the second half of that century, Peruvian literature became more widely known thanks to authors such as Mario Vargas Llosa.
In recent years, Peruvian cuisine has received widespread acclaim by the international media thanks to its diversity of ingredients and techniques. It is a blend of Amerindian and Spanish food with strong influences from other groups such as Africans, Arabs, Italians, Chinese and Japanese, all of which have added their own traditions to the mix. Climate diversity allows the production of a wide variety of plants and animals, both native and introduced. Common dishes include anticuchos, ceviche, humitas, and pachamanca to name just a few.
Peruvian music is very diverse, with Andean, Spanish and African roots. In Prehispanic times, musical expressions varied widely from region to region, instruments employed included the quena and the tinya. New instruments were introduced after the Spanish conquest, such as guitars and harps. This also prompted the appearance of crossbred instruments like the charango. There is an African contribution in rhythms and in cajón, a percussion instrument. As for folk dances, most renowned examples include Marinera Norteña, Tondero and Huayno. In recent decades, urbanization has influenced traditional Andean expressions, further adding to Peruvian musical diversity.
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